What Is Dunnage in Ship Chartering?

Dunnage is the protective material placed in a ship’s cargo spaces to separate, support, cushion, secure, ventilate, or protect cargo during loading, carriage, and discharge. In ship chartering and cargo operations, dunnage is not merely a small operational detail. It can determine whether cargo arrives sound, whether the ship remains safe, whether cargo claims arise, and whether Shipowners, Charterers, shippers, receivers, stevedores, or cargo insurers become involved in disputes after discharge.

In its traditional sense, dunnage often referred to timber laid between cargo and the ship’s steel structure. In modern maritime practice, however, the term covers many different protective materials. Dunnage may include timber, plywood, wooden boards, pallets, rubber mats, plastic sheets, foam pads, cardboard, kraft paper, sacking, tarpaulins, inflatable dunnage bags, separation cloth, cargo liners, wedges, chocks, or other suitable materials used to protect cargo and improve the quality of stowage.

The main purpose of dunnage is to prevent damage to the cargo. It can prevent direct contact with steel surfaces, reduce pressure damage, limit chafing, separate incompatible cargoes, keep cargo away from moisture, create ventilation channels, fill void spaces, and support lashings or securing arrangements. Although dunnage may appear simple, poor dunnage can cause expensive claims. Wet timber, insufficient bedding, contaminated boards, weak pallets, badly placed air bags, or missing separation can damage cargo as badly as bad weather or poor handling.

Dunnage is particularly important where cargo may be harmed by metal-to-metal contact, moisture, sweat, vibration, compression, impact, abrasion, rust staining, cargo movement, or contamination from other cargoes. Steel cargoes, project cargo, machinery, bagged agricultural cargo, paper products, plywood, timber, pipes, coils, crates, cases, drums, and packaged cargo often need careful dunnage planning.

Stowage is a key part of the loading process. Depending on the Charter Party wording, responsibility for loading, stowing, trimming, securing, lashing, dunnaging, and discharging may fall on Shipowners, Charterers, shippers, receivers, or stevedores. In many contracts, cargo operations are transferred to Charterers or shippers, but Shipowners may still retain duties concerning seaworthiness, safe stowage, cargo care, hatch cover condition, hold suitability, and the master’s supervisory role. For this reason, dunnage should always be considered together with the Charter Party clauses and the practical cargo plan.

Materials such as dunnage, wooden planks, timber bearers, rubber strips, plywood sheets, and protective mats are frequently used to separate bagged cargoes, cases, crates, steel products, or project cargo from the steel hull and tank top. Dunnage may also be used to divide cargo parcels belonging to different receivers, separate different grades, protect cargo from residues of previous cargoes, and prevent contamination between incompatible cargoes.

Lashing wires, ropes, chains, straps, webbing, turnbuckles, wedges, chocks, blocks, and securing points are not the same as dunnage, but they often work together. Dunnage provides support, bedding, separation, and protection. Lashing and securing systems restrain movement. A cargo may be well lashed but badly protected if dunnage is inadequate. Equally, a cargo may be well padded but unsafe if it is not properly secured. Professional stowage requires both protection and restraint.

When a Ship loads or discharges at more than one port, dunnage and stowage planning become more complex. The Ship must remain seaworthy throughout the voyage, not only at the first loading port. Trim, stability, draught, shear force, bending moment, and cargo accessibility must be considered. If one parcel is discharged first, the remaining cargo must still be safely stowed. If cargo is loaded in layers for different ports, separation and access become critical. Modern seaworthy trim clauses often place the cost of maintaining safe trim on Charterers, especially where multi-port operations are arranged for their commercial program.

What Is Dunnage in Dry Bulk Shipping?

In dry bulk shipping, dunnage refers to materials used to protect, support, separate, or secure cargo inside cargo holds. Many true bulk cargoes such as coal, iron ore, grain, bauxite, limestone, aggregates, and salt are carried loose without individual dunnage. However, dunnage remains highly relevant in dry bulk ships when they carry bagged cargo, steel products, breakbulk cargo, project cargo, timber, pipes, machinery, palletized cargo, parcel cargo, or cargo that is vulnerable to moisture or contact damage.

Bulk carriers are often used flexibly. A ship that carried coal on one voyage may carry steel coils or bagged rice on the next. The holds may be structurally suitable, but cargo protection requirements differ sharply. A loose coal cargo may not require timber separation. A steel cargo may require extensive wooden bedding, side protection, and careful lashing. A bagged agricultural cargo may require clean, dry holds, ventilation space, and separation from steel surfaces. Dunnage therefore connects the physical characteristics of the cargo with the practical condition of the ship.

The role of dunnage in dry bulk and breakbulk operations is to reduce the risk of shifting, chafing, crushing, sweating, rusting, contamination, staining, caking, mould, mildew, or deterioration. It may also help distribute weight, create air gaps, protect tank tops, separate cargo parcels, prevent cargo from resting directly against frames, and provide a safe foundation for cargo handling.

Dunnage materials may include:

Wood: Timber, lumber, plywood, boards, pallets, wedges, chocks, and wooden bearers are widely used to raise cargo from the tank top, separate cargo parcels, protect cargo surfaces, and spread weight. Wood remains common because it is strong, adaptable, and available in many ports.
Airbags or inflatable dunnage: Inflatable dunnage bags are used to fill void spaces between cargo units and reduce movement. They can be effective where cargo units are packed tightly and require controlled pressure. However, they must be correctly sized, inflated, and protected from sharp edges.
Foam, rubber, or plastic: These materials may be used as pads, sheets, blocks, strips, or cushioning layers for sensitive cargo. Rubber mats can reduce slipping and surface damage. Foam can protect delicate machinery or painted surfaces. Plastic sheets can provide moisture separation.
Corrugated cardboard: Cardboard can be used between cargo layers or packages to reduce surface abrasion. It is light and inexpensive, but it is not suitable for heavy-duty load distribution or wet conditions.
Paper, cloth, or other flexible materials: Kraft paper, sacking, cloth, tarpaulin, and similar materials may be used as barriers against dirt, rust dust, moisture, or cargo residues. They are useful for separation but cannot replace structural support where heavy cargo requires bedding.
Composite and reusable systems: Some modern operations use plastic pallets, composite boards, reusable rubber mats, cargo liners, or engineered dunnage systems to reduce waste and improve consistency.

The choice of dunnage depends on the cargo, the ship’s hold structure, the loading method, the voyage duration, weather risk, ventilation needs, port regulations, and the discharge method. Dunnage for heavy steel cargo must be strong and carefully placed. Dunnage for bagged grain or rice must be dry, clean, and arranged to reduce moisture exposure. Dunnage for project cargo must support the cargo according to its centre of gravity and lifting points.

Proper dunnage use is essential for safe carriage. It may influence cargo claims, insurance recovery, survey findings, and charterparty liability. If cargo is damaged because dunnage was wet, weak, contaminated, inadequate, or incorrectly placed, the dispute may involve several parties. The final responsibility may depend on who supplied the dunnage, who approved it, who placed it, who supervised the stowage, and what the Charter Party says.

Selecting and Using Dunnage in Dry Bulk Shipping

Selecting dunnage requires a practical understanding of cargo behaviour. The correct dunnage is not simply the cheapest available material. It must be strong enough, clean enough, dry enough, compatible with the cargo, and suitable for the voyage. It must also be available in sufficient quantity before loading starts. Dunnage arranged late, during loading pressure, is often poorly selected and poorly placed.

Cargo characteristics: The type, weight, shape, packaging, surface finish, moisture sensitivity, corrosion risk, fragility, and handling method of the cargo must be considered. Steel coils, bagged sugar, paper reels, machinery, timber bundles, pipes, and crates all require different dunnage arrangements.
Load distribution: Dunnage should spread cargo weight safely across the tank top and supporting structure. Heavy cargo concentrated on narrow timber may crush the timber, damage the tank top, or create unsafe point loading. The chief officer and surveyor should consider the ship’s permissible tank top loading.
Ventilation and moisture control: Dunnage can create air spaces and reduce contact with cold or damp steel surfaces. This is important where ship sweat, cargo sweat, condensation, humidity, or temperature differences may affect the cargo.
Compatibility with cargo handling equipment: Dunnage should not obstruct grabs, forklifts, cranes, slings, lifting beams, conveyors, or discharge equipment. It should allow safe access and efficient discharge.
Reusability and environmental considerations: Reusable, recyclable, certified, or biodegradable dunnage can reduce waste. Ports and receivers increasingly expect better waste management and environmentally responsible disposal.
Cost-effectiveness: Dunnage cost should be compared with the value of the cargo and the potential cost of damage. Saving money on dunnage can be expensive if the result is cargo rejection, delay, or insurance claims.
Cleanliness and condition: Dunnage should be free from oil, grease, chemicals, rust dust, mould, insects, odour, nails, sharp edges, splinters, and previous cargo residues. Contaminated dunnage should not be used for sensitive cargo.
Regulatory and quarantine requirements: Wooden dunnage may need to meet treatment or phytosanitary requirements. Some destination countries may reject untreated wood or require proof of treatment. Failure to comply may cause delay, fines, or disposal costs.
Availability at loading port: Not all ports have sufficient quality dunnage available at short notice. Charterers and shippers should arrange dunnage before the ship arrives if the cargo requires substantial protection.
Discharge and removal plan: Dunnage must eventually be removed, disposed of, reused, or returned. If large quantities remain in the hold after discharge, the ship may lose time before the next cargo.

Dunnage planning should be completed before loading begins. The master, chief officer, stevedores, Charterers, shippers, cargo surveyors, and terminal representatives should understand the cargo plan. Where cargo is valuable, heavy, moisture-sensitive, or claim-sensitive, a written dunnage and stowage plan is strongly advisable.

What Is Dunnage Wood in Dry Bulk Ships?

Dunnage wood is wooden material used in dry bulk ships, multipurpose ships, general cargo ships, and cargo holds to protect, support, separate, and secure cargo. It remains one of the most widely used forms of dunnage because it is adaptable, strong, familiar to stevedores, and suitable for many cargo types. It can be cut, shaped, layered, wedged, nailed, or arranged quickly during loading.

Wooden dunnage is particularly common for steel cargoes, pipes, plates, coils, machinery, bagged cargo, crates, palletized cargo, project cargo, timber cargo, and mixed parcel shipments. It prevents direct contact between cargo and the ship’s steel tank top, side frames, hold structure, or other cargo units. It can also lift cargo above minor moisture, create drainage space, spread weight, and reduce abrasion.

Dunnage wood may be supplied in several forms:

Timber or lumber: Solid timber pieces are used as bearers, bedding, spacers, wedges, chocks, supports, or separation pieces. Heavy cargo often requires stronger and thicker timber placed according to weight distribution.
Wooden pallets: Pallets can elevate cargo and assist forklift handling. They are useful for packaged cargo but must be strong enough for the cargo weight and suitable for shipboard movement.
Wooden boards or plywood: Boards and plywood sheets can create barriers, flat bases, partitions, and protective layers. Plywood is useful where a smoother surface is needed.
Wedges and chocks: Cut timber wedges and chocks can prevent rolling or shifting, especially for pipes, drums, reels, and cylindrical cargo.
Timber grids and cradles: Heavy cargo may require engineered timber arrangements to support specific contact points and distribute weight.

When using dunnage wood, the parties should consider treatment, strength, moisture content, cleanliness, and disposal. The wood must be fit for the cargo. Rotten, split, oily, wet, insect-infested, or chemically contaminated timber should not be used. For sensitive cargo, even a small amount of contamination can lead to rejection or claims.

Treated or untreated wood: International trades may require treated timber. Quarantine regulations can be strict, especially where wood packaging material or loose timber may introduce pests.
Load distribution: Timber must spread cargo weight safely. Narrow or irregular timber can create local pressure, cargo deformation, or tank top damage.
Environmental considerations: Responsibly sourced timber, reusable boards, or certified wood may reduce environmental impact.
Moisture content: Wet timber can transfer moisture to cargo. For moisture-sensitive goods, dunnage should be dry and preferably inspected before use.
Condition and strength: Timber must be capable of supporting the load throughout the voyage, including ship motion, vibration, compression, and discharge handling.

Dunnage wood is practical, but it is not automatically suitable merely because it is wood. The quality, size, dryness, treatment, and placement of timber are as important as the fact that timber is used.

What Is Hardwood Dunnage and Softwood Dunnage in Dry Bulk Ships?

Hardwood dunnage and softwood dunnage are two categories of wooden dunnage used to protect and support cargo in dry bulk ships and cargo holds. Both can be effective, but they have different characteristics. The correct choice depends on cargo weight, strength requirements, cost, availability, handling, moisture risk, and the standards required by the cargo owner or receiver.

Hardwood Dunnage:

Hardwood dunnage is generally produced from deciduous trees such as oak, teak, maple, beech, or similar species. It is usually denser, heavier, and more durable than many softwoods.
Because hardwood is strong and resistant to wear, it is often used where cargo is heavy, abrasive, concentrated, or high-value. Steel products, heavy machinery, project cargo, and dense industrial cargo may require hardwood bedding or stronger timber support.
Hardwood may resist crushing better than softwood and may provide better durability under high pressure or repeated handling.
The disadvantages are cost, weight, availability, and handling difficulty. Hardwood may be more expensive and harder to cut during loading operations.
Hardwood dunnage may be useful for separating heavy steel plates, supporting machinery bases, forming strong bearers, and resisting demanding cargo environments.

Softwood Dunnage:

Softwood dunnage is usually produced from coniferous trees such as pine, spruce, fir, or similar species. It is generally lighter, easier to cut, more available, and often less expensive than hardwood.
Softwood is commonly used for ordinary cargo separation, light-to-medium cargo bedding, pallets, boards, temporary partitions, and cargo protection where extremely high strength is not required.
Because softwood is easier to work with, stevedores can cut and fit it quickly. This makes it practical in many ports and for many general cargo operations.
Softwood may be more vulnerable to crushing, splintering, moisture absorption, insect issues, and deformation if not properly selected or treated.
Where softwood dunnage is used internationally, treatment and phytosanitary compliance should be checked carefully.

The choice between hardwood and softwood should be based on cargo risk. A heavy steel cargo may justify hardwood or carefully specified timber. A lighter packaged cargo may be properly protected with softwood boards or pallets. A high-value cargo may require cleaner, smoother, and better-prepared dunnage regardless of wood type.

Dunnage, Cargo Claims, and Charterparty Responsibility

Dunnage disputes often arise after discharge when cargo is found wet, rusted, stained, crushed, dented, shifted, contaminated, mouldy, torn, or otherwise damaged. The central question is usually whether the cargo was properly protected, stowed, separated, ventilated, and secured. Surveyors may examine hold condition, dunnage type, dunnage quantity, timber marks, moisture traces, cargo contact points, lashings, ventilation records, hatch cover condition, and loading photographs.

Responsibility depends on the Charter Party and the facts. Some Charter Parties place loading, stowing, trimming, lashing, securing, dunnaging, and discharging on Charterers, shippers, or stevedores. Others leave some duties with Shipowners. Even where cargo operations are for Charterers’ account, Shipowners may still owe duties concerning seaworthiness, due diligence, proper care of cargo, hold condition, and the master’s intervention if stowage is unsafe.

Clear wording is essential. The Charter Party should state who supplies dunnage, who pays for it, who places it, who supervises it, who approves it, who removes it, and who bears responsibility if it is insufficient or defective. Where the cargo is steel, bagged foodstuffs, machinery, or another claim-sensitive cargo, the dunnage clause should be more precise.

Good evidence is often decisive. The parties should keep photographs before loading, during dunnage placement, after completion of loading, and before discharge. They should preserve dunnage receipts, survey reports, mate’s receipts, statements of facts, stevedore notes, letters of protest, and cargo condition records. If the master considers dunnage inadequate, the master should protest promptly and clearly.

Dunnage and Seaworthiness

Dunnage may be relevant to seaworthiness because a ship must be reasonably fit to carry the agreed cargo safely. A ship may be structurally sound but still unsuitable if the holds are dirty, wet, contaminated, or unprepared for the cargo. If suitable dunnage is required to make the ship fit for the cargo, the absence of proper dunnage can become a serious issue.

Seaworthiness includes cargoworthiness. The Ship must be fit not only to float and navigate but also to receive, carry, and preserve the cargo. For some cargoes, cargoworthiness may require clean holds, dry holds, sound hatch covers, proper ventilation, adequate separation, and sufficient dunnage. The exact requirement depends on the cargo and the contract.

Where Charterers are responsible for cargo operations, Shipowners should still be alert to unsafe stowage or inadequate dunnage that may affect the safety of the Ship. The master has authority and responsibility for the safety of the Ship. If cargo is being loaded in a way that threatens stability, structural safety, or seaworthiness, the master should intervene.

Dunnage and Cargo Worthiness of Holds

Cargo holds should be prepared according to the cargo to be loaded. The standard required for coal is different from the standard required for grain, steel, bagged rice, fertilizer, or paper. Dunnage cannot compensate for fundamentally unsuitable holds. If the hold is wet, oily, contaminated, infested, odorous, or structurally unsafe, simply placing dunnage may not be enough.

Before loading, holds should be inspected for residues, loose rust, scale, previous cargo remains, oil, grease, chemical traces, loose paint, standing water, and odours. Bilge wells should be clean, dry, covered, and protected. Hatch covers should be checked for weather-tightness if the cargo is moisture-sensitive. Ventilation systems should be suitable for the cargo requirements.

Dunnage should then be placed on a clean and suitable surface. If dunnage is placed over dirt, oil, wet residues, or loose rust, it may hide the problem rather than solve it. Cargo damage may still occur, and post-discharge evidence may show that the underlying hold condition was inadequate.

Dunnage and Moisture Protection

Moisture is one of the most common reasons for using dunnage. Cargo may be exposed to ship sweat, cargo sweat, rain during loading, wet tank tops, condensation, humidity, leaking hatch covers, bilge water, or residual wash water. Dunnage can reduce direct contact with wet surfaces, but it cannot cure poor hatch cover condition, wet holds, or unsuitable ventilation.

Ship sweat occurs when warm moist air condenses on colder ship steelwork. Cargo sweat occurs when warm moist air condenses on colder cargo. Both can damage sensitive cargoes. Dunnage can help by creating air spaces and preventing direct contact with steel, but the correct ventilation strategy is also important.

For steel cargo, moisture can cause rust. Steel coils, steel plates, pipes, wire rods, and machinery should be protected from condensation and wet dunnage. For bagged agricultural cargoes, moisture can cause mould, staining, caking, odour, heating, or deterioration. For paper and packaging cargoes, moisture can weaken packaging and deform the cargo.

Wet dunnage is a serious risk. Timber that appears strong may still carry moisture. If wet timber is placed under steel or bagged cargo, it may transfer moisture during the voyage. Where cargo is moisture-sensitive, dunnage should be dry, clean, and inspected.

Dunnage and Ventilation

Dunnage can support ventilation by creating air spaces around cargo. Air spaces may allow natural or mechanical ventilation to reduce moisture accumulation. However, ventilation must be used correctly. Ventilating at the wrong time can introduce moist air and worsen condensation. For some cargoes, ventilation may be restricted or unnecessary.

In stowage planning, dunnage should not block ventilation openings, bilge access, sounding pipes, or inspection points. Cargo should not be packed so tightly against the ship’s structure that air cannot circulate where circulation is required. If ventilation is important, dunnage placement should support the ventilation plan rather than obstruct it.

Ventilation records can become important evidence in cargo claims. If cargo arrives wet or mouldy, parties may examine whether the ship ventilated properly, whether weather conditions justified ventilation, whether holds were sealed during rain, and whether dunnage was sufficient to allow airflow.

Dunnage and Steel Cargoes

Steel cargoes often require careful dunnage because steel is vulnerable to rust, bending, denting, coating damage, pressure marks, and movement. Steel coils, plates, pipes, beams, billets, slabs, and wire rods may each require different bedding and separation methods.

Steel coils may need timber beds, wedges, chocks, and lashings to prevent rolling. Steel plates may need timber bearers to allow lifting gear access and prevent metal-to-metal contact. Pipes may need chocks and separators to prevent rolling and abrasion. Painted or coated steel may require soft protection to avoid surface damage.

Steel cargo claims often involve arguments about pre-shipment rust, atmospheric rust, saltwater exposure, condensation, insufficient dunnage, poor separation, or inadequate lashing. Photographs and pre-loading surveys are extremely important. Dunnage should be clean and dry, and timber should not contain substances that stain or react with steel.

Dunnage and Bagged Cargoes

Bagged cargoes such as rice, sugar, flour, cement, fertilizer, beans, seeds, and other agricultural or industrial goods may require dunnage to keep the bags away from steel surfaces, condensation, residues, and sharp edges. Bags can tear, absorb moisture, stain, or become contaminated if stowed directly against the hold structure.

Bagged cargoes may also need separation by marks, receivers, grades, or discharge ports. Dunnage, separation cloth, paper, or other materials may help preserve identity and prevent mixing. Where cargo is discharged at several ports, proper separation is essential to avoid overlanding, shortlanding, or cargo confusion.

For bagged food cargoes, cleanliness standards are especially important. Dunnage should not be oily, mouldy, insect-infested, chemically treated inappropriately, or contaminated by previous cargoes. If wooden dunnage is used, quarantine and treatment rules should be considered.

Dunnage and Project Cargo

Project cargo often requires custom dunnage arrangements. Heavy machinery, transformers, turbines, industrial modules, vehicles, cranes, and oversized equipment may have specific support points. Cargo weight may be concentrated on a small footprint, so ordinary timber may be insufficient.

Project cargo dunnage should be planned with reference to lifting drawings, centre of gravity, support points, manufacturer instructions, grillage design, lashing plans, and ship structural limits. In some cases, naval architects, cargo superintendents, or marine warranty surveyors may be involved.

Improvised dunnage can be dangerous for project cargo. If the cargo rests on the wrong part of its frame, it may bend or crack. If dunnage compresses during the voyage, lashings may slacken. If the support arrangement is too narrow, the ship’s tank top may be overstressed. Proper engineering is essential for heavy and high-value cargo.

Dunnage and Heavy-Lift Cargo

Heavy-lift cargo requires special attention because weight distribution is critical. The dunnage must support the cargo safely during loading, sea passage, and discharge. It must also withstand dynamic forces caused by ship motion. Static weight at the berth is not the only concern. Rolling, pitching, vibration, acceleration, and impact can increase loads during the voyage.

For heavy-lift cargo, dunnage may form part of a larger support system, including grillage, stools, stools with steel reinforcement, timber mats, welded sea-fastening, or engineered cradles. The cargo plan should identify load paths from the cargo through the dunnage into the ship’s structure.

Heavy-lift dunnage should never be selected purely by availability. It must be designed for the cargo and the ship. Survey approval, class approval, or marine warranty approval may be required depending on the cargo and contract.

Dunnage and Cargo Separation

Dunnage is often used to separate cargoes by grade, parcel, receiver, bill of lading, discharge port, or compatibility. Cargo separation is essential where different parcels look similar but must not be mixed. It is also important where one cargo could contaminate another.

Separation can be achieved with timber, plywood, tarpaulins, cloth, plastic sheets, nets, paint marks, labels, or physical distance. The method must be suitable for the cargo and the discharge plan. Weak separation can collapse during the voyage or during cargo handling, creating disputes at discharge.

In multi-port voyages, separation is especially important. Cargo for the first discharge port should be accessible without disturbing cargo for later ports. Dunnage and separation materials should be arranged so that discharge can proceed efficiently and safely.

Dunnage and Cargo Securing

Dunnage supports cargo securing by creating friction, blocking movement, filling gaps, and providing foundations for lashings. However, dunnage alone is not a substitute for proper securing where cargo is liable to move. Cargo securing should consider the cargo’s weight, shape, centre of gravity, stowage position, expected weather, and ship motion.

For rolling cargo, pipes, coils, reels, drums, and cylindrical units, wedges and chocks may be essential. For tall cargo, side support and lashings may be necessary. For heavy cargo, bedding must prevent both movement and structural overload. For packaged cargo, void spaces should be controlled to avoid shifting and collapse.

If cargo moves during the voyage, damage may occur not only to the cargo but also to the ship. Cargo movement can damage frames, tank tops, bulkheads, hatch covers, ladders, pipes, and bilge arrangements. Proper dunnage and securing protect both cargo and Ship.

Dunnage and Tank Top Protection

The tank top is one of the most important structural areas in a cargo hold. Heavy cargo placed directly on the tank top may damage coatings, dent plating, or create excessive local load. Dunnage can spread weight and protect the surface.

However, dunnage must be placed correctly. If timber bearers are too narrow or too far apart, they may concentrate loads rather than spread them. If the cargo is very heavy, the chief officer should check the ship’s loading manual and permissible tank top load. The cargo plan should ensure that the weight is distributed within structural limits.

Tank top protection is also important after dirty or abrasive cargoes. Residues under dunnage can scratch coatings or trap moisture. Proper cleaning before and after cargo operations helps reduce corrosion and maintenance problems.

Dunnage and Cleanliness Standards

Dunnage must be suitable for the cleanliness standard required by the cargo. Cargoes intended for food, agriculture, chemicals, paper, or high-value industrial use may require a much higher standard than rough industrial cargo. Using dirty timber or contaminated cardboard under sensitive cargo can create claims even if the cargo is physically secure.

Cleanliness should be assessed before loading. Dunnage should be inspected for oil, grease, chemicals, odour, mould, insects, dirt, rust dust, wetness, and previous cargo contamination. If the dunnage is unsuitable, it should be rejected before cargo is placed on it.

Where surveyors attend loading, their report should describe the dunnage condition and any objections raised. If cargo interests accept dunnage despite visible defects, this may become relevant later. However, acceptance does not always release the responsible party if the dunnage was objectively unsuitable.

Dunnage and International Phytosanitary Rules

Wooden dunnage used in international trade may be subject to phytosanitary requirements intended to prevent the spread of insects, pests, and plant diseases. Many countries apply strict rules to wood packaging materials and loose timber dunnage. If wood is untreated, unmarked, infested, or non-compliant, authorities may order fumigation, treatment, destruction, or removal.

These requirements can cause delay and cost. A receiver may be unable to take delivery until authorities clear the dunnage. A ship may be delayed if dunnage disposal becomes a quarantine issue. For this reason, shippers and Charterers should confirm destination requirements before loading wooden dunnage.

Where treated wood is required, documents and markings should be checked. A failure to comply can turn a simple cargo protection material into a regulatory problem at discharge.

Dunnage Removal and Disposal After Discharge

Dunnage planning should include removal and disposal. After discharge, large quantities of timber, plywood, cardboard, plastic sheets, airbags, sacking, and packaging may remain in the hold. The Charter Party or port arrangements should identify who removes it, who pays for disposal, and whether any material can be reused.

Some ports have strict waste rules. Wooden dunnage may need quarantine disposal. Plastic and synthetic materials may require controlled waste handling. Contaminated dunnage may be treated as special waste. If these issues are not arranged in advance, the ship may face delay before it can clean holds and load the next cargo.

For Shipowners, dunnage left on board can create time loss and cleaning expense. For Charterers, poor disposal planning can increase port costs and delay completion of discharge. Therefore, dunnage should be treated as part of the voyage plan from loading to final hold cleaning.

Dunnage Cost in Chartering

Dunnage cost can be small compared with freight, but it can still affect the voyage result. Costs may include purchase, transport to berth, labour for placement, survey attendance, replacement of unsuitable material, removal, disposal, and cleaning after discharge. In some cargoes, the cost of proper dunnage can be substantial.

The Charter Party should state who pays for dunnage. If the clause is silent, disputes may arise. In some trades, dunnage is supplied by shippers. In others, it is arranged by Charterers, stevedores, or Shipowners. The party responsible for cargo operations is not always the same party responsible for paying dunnage cost.

Where dunnage is required by the cargo owner’s specification, the cost should be addressed before fixture or at least before loading. If additional dunnage is demanded after loading begins, the parties may dispute whether it is necessary and who bears the expense.

Dunnage Clauses in Charter Parties

Dunnage clauses in Charter Parties can prevent later disagreement. A clear clause may address supply, cost, responsibility, approval, disposal, and liability. It may state whether dunnage is for Charterers’ account, whether Shipowners must provide it, whether stevedores place it, and whether the master may require additional dunnage for safety or cargo care.

A practical dunnage clause may include:

Who supplies dunnage.
Who pays for dunnage.
Who places and secures dunnage.
Whether dunnage must be dry, clean, treated, or certified.
Who approves dunnage suitability.
Who removes dunnage after discharge.
Who pays disposal and cleaning costs.
What happens if the master requires additional dunnage.
How responsibility is allocated if cargo damage is caused by defective dunnage.

Ambiguous wording can create expensive disputes. For valuable cargo, the dunnage clause should be specific rather than general.

Dunnage and Mate’s Receipts

Mate’s receipts may record cargo condition at loading and may include remarks concerning dunnage, stowage, wet cargo, rust, torn bags, damaged packing, or insufficient protection. If the master or chief officer observes inadequate dunnage, it may be appropriate to issue a protest or insert remarks where legally and commercially justified.

Clean documents issued despite visible cargo or dunnage problems can create later difficulty. If cargo damage is later alleged, the records from loading become important. The master should not ignore obvious defects in dunnage or stowage that may affect cargo condition.

At the same time, remarks should be accurate and factual. General complaints without clear evidence may create disputes. Photographs, survey reports, and written communications should support any serious objection.

Dunnage and Bills of Lading

Dunnage can become relevant to bills of lading because bills of lading may evidence cargo condition when loaded. If cargo is damaged because of inadequate dunnage, cargo interests may pursue claims against the contractual carrier. The carrier may then seek indemnity from the party responsible for loading, stowage, or dunnage under the Charter Party.

This is one reason the distinction between Charter Party responsibility and bill of lading responsibility matters. A cargo receiver may not care whether Charterers or stevedores supplied the dunnage. The receiver may claim against the carrier if the cargo arrives damaged. The carrier must then rely on contractual rights, evidence, and indemnity clauses to shift responsibility where appropriate.

Good dunnage records protect the carrier and the responsible cargo-operating party. Bad records leave room for assumptions and allegations.

Dunnage and Insurance

Cargo insurers often examine whether cargo was properly packed, stowed, secured, and protected. Dunnage may therefore become central to insurance recovery. If insurers believe cargo was damaged because of inadequate or unsuitable dunnage, they may question liability and recovery rights.

Protection and indemnity insurers may also become involved where cargo claims are made against Shipowners. Evidence of proper dunnage, careful hold preparation, and master supervision can help defend claims. Conversely, poor dunnage evidence may weaken the defence.

Marine insurance does not replace proper cargo care. The best insurance position is created by preventing damage and preserving evidence.

Dunnage and Surveyors

Surveyors play an important role in dunnage-related cargo operations. A pre-loading survey may examine hold cleanliness, dryness, cargo suitability, hatch covers, bilges, and proposed dunnage. A loading survey may record how dunnage is placed. A discharge survey may inspect cargo damage and determine whether dunnage contributed to the loss.

Surveyors may be appointed by Shipowners, Charterers, shippers, receivers, cargo insurers, P&I insurers, or banks. Their findings can influence claims, settlements, and arbitration. Therefore, survey attendance should be arranged early when cargo is valuable or sensitive.

Survey reports should be detailed. General statements such as “dunnage used” may not be enough. Better reports identify type, quantity, condition, placement, dryness, treatment, and any defects or objections.

Dunnage and Multi-Port Loading or Discharge

Multi-port operations require careful dunnage planning because cargo may need to be separated by port, receiver, or parcel. Cargo loaded first may be discharged last. Cargo for later ports must not block access to cargo for earlier ports. Dunnage and separation must be arranged to support the port rotation.

Multi-port operations also affect stability and trim. As cargo is loaded or discharged in stages, the ship’s condition changes. Dunnage may be required not only for cargo protection but also for safe access and controlled discharge. If separation fails, cargo may be overcarried or discharged at the wrong port.

Clear stowage plans, cargo marks, separation materials, and communication between ship and shore are essential. Any changes to the loading sequence should be recorded.

Dunnage and Weather During Loading

Weather can affect both cargo and dunnage. Rain during loading can wet timber, packaging, steel, bagged cargo, or hold surfaces. If cargo is moisture-sensitive, loading should stop and hatches should be closed when necessary. If dunnage becomes wet before cargo is placed, it should be replaced or dried where appropriate.

Statements of facts should accurately record rain periods, hatch closures, stoppages, and protests. If cargo is loaded during rain against the master’s objection, this should be documented. Weather evidence can be important if cargo arrives damaged by moisture.

Dunnage that becomes wet at the loading berth may continue to affect cargo throughout the voyage. Therefore, weather precautions at loading are as important as ventilation at sea.

Dunnage and Cargo Compatibility

Dunnage can help separate cargoes that should not touch each other. Some cargoes may contaminate, stain, taint, or physically damage other cargoes. For example, oily machinery should not contact clean bagged cargo. Rusty steel should be separated from clean packaged goods. Chemical residues should not be near food-grade cargo.

Compatibility is not only about cargo-to-cargo contact. It also concerns the compatibility of dunnage with cargo. Some treated wood may not be suitable for food cargo. Some plastic materials may react with chemicals. Some coloured materials may stain cargo surfaces. The dunnage material should be compatible with the cargo’s intended use.

Dunnage and Dangerous Goods

Where dangerous goods or hazardous cargoes are carried, dunnage may need to meet special requirements. It must not react with the cargo, create ignition risk, absorb hazardous substances, or prevent emergency access. Damaged packages of dangerous goods may contaminate dunnage, requiring special disposal.

Dangerous goods stowage should follow applicable rules, cargo declarations, segregation requirements, and safety instructions. Dunnage should support those requirements, not undermine them. If hazardous cargo leaks into dunnage, the material may become hazardous waste.

Dunnage and Temperature-Sensitive Cargo

Some cargoes are affected by temperature changes. Dunnage may provide limited insulation, separation, or airflow, but it cannot replace a controlled environment. Temperature-sensitive cargo should be assessed carefully before being placed in ordinary cargo holds.

For cargoes vulnerable to heat, cold, or condensation, dunnage may help by preventing direct contact with steel surfaces and creating air gaps. However, ventilation strategy, voyage route, weather, season, and hold condition remain important.

Dunnage and Bulk Carrier Hold Structures

Bulk carrier holds contain tank tops, hopper sides, frames, stools, bilge wells, access ladders, pipes, and structural members. Cargo may contact these surfaces during loading and sea passage. Dunnage can protect cargo from sharp or abrasive areas and can prevent cargo from entering spaces where discharge becomes difficult.

When cargo is placed near frames or side structures, timber or protective boards may prevent surface damage. When cargo is placed over bilge areas, proper covers and protection are necessary. Dunnage should not block drainage or prevent inspection of bilge wells where access is required.

Dunnage and Cargo Handling Safety

Dunnage affects the safety of stevedores and crew. Poorly placed timber can create trip hazards, unstable platforms, collapsing stacks, or unsafe forklift paths. Nails, splinters, broken boards, and loose chocks can injure workers. Inflatable bags can burst if misused. Heavy timber can shift during discharge.

A safe dunnage plan considers how cargo will be loaded and discharged. Dunnage should not be placed in a way that traps workers, blocks escape routes, hides hazards, or creates unstable cargo stacks. Safety should be considered at both loading and discharge, not only during sea passage.

Common Dunnage Mistakes

Common mistakes include using wet timber for moisture-sensitive cargo, using weak boards under heavy cargo, failing to separate different parcels, using contaminated dunnage, placing timber too far apart, failing to wedge rolling cargo, blocking ventilation, ignoring quarantine requirements, and leaving dunnage disposal unresolved.

Another common mistake is assuming that stevedores will automatically know the correct dunnage requirement. Stevedores may be skilled, but they are not always aware of the cargo owner’s specification, the receiver’s requirements, or the Charter Party allocation of risk. Instructions should be clear before loading starts.

A further mistake is treating dunnage as a cost to minimize rather than a risk-control tool. In many cargo claims, the cost of better dunnage would have been small compared with the claim amount.

Dunnage Checklist Before Loading

Confirm cargo type, weight, packaging, sensitivity, and handling method.
Check Charter Party responsibility for dunnage supply, cost, placement, and removal.
Confirm whether wooden dunnage must be treated or certified.
Inspect cargo holds for cleanliness, dryness, odour, residues, rust, and standing water.
Check bilges, hatch covers, ventilation, and drainage arrangements.
Ensure dunnage is clean, dry, strong, and sufficient in quantity.
Prepare a stowage and dunnage plan for sensitive or heavy cargo.
Take photographs before loading and during dunnage placement.
Arrange survey attendance if the cargo is valuable or claim-sensitive.
Record any objections, protests, or instructions in writing.

Dunnage Checklist During Loading

Monitor dunnage placement against the agreed plan.
Stop operations if dunnage is wet, damaged, contaminated, or insufficient.
Check that cargo is not placed directly against unsuitable steel surfaces.
Confirm that heavy cargo loads are properly spread.
Ensure separation is maintained between parcels and discharge ports.
Check lashings, chocks, wedges, and blocking where required.
Protect cargo from rain and close hatches where necessary.
Keep photographic records throughout loading.
Issue written protests promptly if unsafe or unsuitable stowage is observed.
Ensure final stowage remains safe for the sea voyage.

Dunnage Checklist After Discharge

Inspect remaining dunnage for signs of moisture, crushing, contamination, or failure.
Photograph any cargo damage before cargo is moved further.
Separate damaged cargo and preserve evidence.
Record discharge findings with surveyors and receivers.
Remove dunnage according to port rules and Charter Party terms.
Clean holds for the next cargo.
Preserve statements of facts, survey reports, and correspondence.
Check whether disposal costs are for Shipowners’ or Charterers’ account.

Practical Uses of Dunnage in Ship Cargo Operations

Dunnage may be used for many practical purposes during cargo operations:

To keep cargo away from the steel tank top, sides, frames, hatch coamings, and bulkheads.
To separate cargo parcels, grades, marks, receivers, and discharge ports.
To prevent rust staining, oil transfer, dirt, or contamination from ship structures.
To create ventilation spaces around moisture-sensitive cargo.
To spread the weight of heavy cargo and reduce point pressure.
To fill voids and reduce cargo movement.
To protect cargo surfaces from chafing, abrasion, vibration, or impact.
To support lashings, wedges, chocks, and blocking arrangements.
To improve discharge efficiency by allowing access for forklifts, slings, or lifting equipment.
To reduce the risk of cargo claims, insurance disputes, and receiver rejection.

The best dunnage arrangements are practical, clean, dry, strong, properly placed, and compatible with the cargo. Dunnage should never be treated as an afterthought. It is part of safe cargo care and proper shipboard stowage.

Conclusion: Why Dunnage Matters in Ship Chartering

Dunnage is a simple concept with major commercial, legal, and operational importance. It protects cargo, supports safe stowage, separates parcels, reduces movement, limits moisture damage, and helps preserve the condition of both cargo and Ship. In ship chartering, dunnage can also affect liability, cargo claims, insurance recovery, port delays, cargo rejection, and the interpretation of Charter Party obligations.

The correct use of dunnage depends on cargo type, ship design, hold condition, voyage duration, moisture risk, handling method, and contractual responsibility. Whether the material is hardwood, softwood, plywood, rubber, foam, cardboard, sacking, plastic, paper, or inflatable dunnage, it must be fit for purpose and properly applied.

For Shipowners, Charterers, shippers, receivers, Shipbrokers, stevedores, surveyors, and insurers, careful dunnage planning is one of the most effective ways to prevent cargo damage and post-voyage disputes. In professional cargo operations, dunnage is not merely packing material; it is part of safe carriage, proper stowage, cargoworthiness, seaworthiness, and sound maritime risk management.